ABSTRACT
The southward direction of population movement through most of China's history has been well documented, l and the nineteenth century saw the same pattern continuing, rebellions and population pressure working to push the unfortunate and the most disadvantaged down to the southern coast, where many of them took ship. They did so with reluctance for the most part: first, it was axiomatic for the Chinese that anything outside China was barbarian and inferior, so that only dire necessity or duress could lead to their leaving the homeland; second, from 1712 right up to 1893, it was a capital offense to leave without special permission:
All officers of government, soldiers, and private citizens, who clandestinely proceed to sea to trade, or who remove to foreign islands for the purpose of inhabiting and cultivating the same, shall be punished according to the law against communicating with rebels and enemies, and consequently suffer death by being beheaded.2
