ABSTRACT
The year 1870, which saw the unification of Germany and the consolidation of a revolution from above in Japan, saw a major event in China—the appointment of Li Hung-chang (1823–1901) as governor-general of Chihli and as imperial commissioner for the Northern Ports. Even while he was absorbed in the task of suppressing internal rebellion in the 1860s, Li had been the foremost advocate of “self-strengthening” (tzu-ch’iang)—the policy of building up China’s military potential, chiefly by adopting Western technology, so as to meet the challenge of external aggression. 1 In his new position of influence, close to Peking, Li worked to continue and expand this policy.
