ABSTRACT
This chapter covers innovations in social control in Europe after 1789. These innovations were not revolutionary. Indeed, they were designed to prevent revolutions. The French Revolution demonstrated to Western political elites and their challengers that existing means of social control, especially clerical activity, had become inadequate. Governments increased their police forces and gave them more training. In the nineteenth century new police devices the mug shot, fingerprints, telegraphs, and telephones became available. After about 1870 conservatives adopted as their own two radical innovations: nationalism and democracy. They made concessions, setting up safety nets for the unfortunate and expanding educational systems. They fostered the development of a gigantic entertainment and public relations sector in the economy. The idea of nationalism might be briefly summed up as "every state a nation and every nation a state". That is, every ethnic group should have its own state.
