ABSTRACT
Introduction All societies have ethical standards-norms and beliefs addressing what is right or wrong, permissible or not permissible. These moral standards are established by people and vary over time and among societies. They are, therefore, social constructs, made by people and for people. Many of these rights respect the origin of what we today call civil and political rights. Today’s understanding of human rights came with the birth of the United Nations. These rights are enshrined in the Universal Declaration on Human Rights, and two International covenants (the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Social, Economic and Cultural Rights), and UN Conventions. Human rights are basic standards aimed at securing dignity and equality for all. International human rights laws constitute the most universally accepted standards for such treatment. Human rights became a focus of international law long before environmental concerns did. While the United Nations Charter of 1945 marked the beginning of modern international human rights law, the Stakeholders’ Declaration of 1972 is generally seen as the starting point of the modern international framework for environmental issues.1 This is evident as “the environment is not an abstraction but represents the living space, the quality of life and the very health of human beings, including generations unborn.”2 Forty-two years ago, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was held in Stockholm, where the international community declared that
Man has the fundamental right to freedom/equity and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and wellbeing, and he bears a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations.3
