Regional Divisions of Costs and Benefits

In Morse’s periodization of Chinese developments, the first third of the nineteenth century continued the expansion of the previous one. He termed the next period from 1834 to 1860 one of “conflict” and the one until the Sino-Japanese War in 1894–1895 as a period of “subjection.” The final one after that till 1911 he regarded as one of “submission,” but notably in the first instance to Japan and then Russia, more than to the Western powers.