ABSTRACT
This chapter examines the historical process that creates the concept "All-under-Heaven" and the historical narratives superimposed on this process, and assesses the development of China's foreign policy philosophy. It expresses that the 'Chinese barbarian' dichotomy has become obsolete because all people can become 'civilized'. On the international level, China's decision for Marxism-Leninism made it as a part of the communist world. The Guomindang congress (GMD) failure to resist foreign dominance during the first half of the 20th century increases support for the Communist Party of China (CPC) across Chinese society. In other words, the degree to which the People's Republic of China (PRC) becomes a modern nation-state depends on the CPC's 'universalizing' success in raising all its citizens to the Han's level of development. Although China is often perceived as the other, the representative of an undemocratic, non-liberal society in both options, China has become an undeniable participant in contemporary international relations.
