ABSTRACT
This chapter looks at the reciprocal influences of structure and agency on political participation. Individuals are, by definition, the primary actors in mass politics but they are always acting in a context defined by formal and informal political institutions. One general way of conceptualizing the impact of institutions on individuals is to think of them as opportunity structures for individuals. To be more precise, federalism creates the possibility of another form of divided government. Bureaucracy and democracy are usually thought of as antithetical concepts, albeit both having substantial relevance for governing. Information costs can be a second major variable affecting voting, and especially voting turnout. The concept of credible commitment has been used to describe the need for public sector institutions, such as central banks and regulatory agencies, to make policy choices that will survive beyond a single term of office. Finally, other changes in electoral laws may also be able to influence turnout, and in a positive direction.
