Introduction

The phenomenon of hikikomori was originally not attended to in other countries, since it was believed to be a cultural-bound phenomenon associated with the unique culture of Japan. First, Japanese culture stresses “communal commitment over individualism” (Fink, 2002: 25); when individuals fail to find ways to conform to the collective standards, their only option is to withdraw from society. Second, Japanese culture places higher expectations on men than women in terms of their smooth transition from prestigious education to prestigious work; when individuals, especially men, cannot withstand the pressure, they simply withdraw from society. Third, amae (i.e. an over-dependent mother-son relationship) is not uncommon in Japan; such a relationship results in hikikomori, either because it promotes a child’s reliance on its mother or because the child shows dissatisfaction toward this relationship through seclusion (Rees, 2002).