ABSTRACT
The basic principles by which evolution creates design without a plan or designer are outlined. Darwin’s idea of ‘descent with modification’ is explained in terms of the evolutionary algorithm and the ‘modern synthesis’ between genetics and evolutionary theory. Selfish gene theory suggests the possibility of a second replicator, the meme, which depends on human imitation. What about other animals? Can we ever know whether octopuses, rats, or crows, with their very different experienced worlds, are conscious? Can we tell whether they feel pain or suffer? We might consider physical criteria like brain size, function, and organisation; or behavioural criteria like intelligence, memory, or insight. But should we compare vastly different species against our own abilities? Mirror self-recognition has been widely used to test whether animals have a sense of self, but this method has its problems. Other research has investigated animals’ ‘theory of mind’ or ability to understand others’ beliefs and intentions, and their capacity for imitation. Arguably the greatest divide between us and other species is language, and attempts to teach language to other species are reviewed. We are left wondering whether an octopus is conscious and whether this question even makes sense.
