ABSTRACT
The most efficacious application of control to aging is probably best preceded by an understanding of the nature of control. During the past several decades, various models of control, including actual control over stimuli, predictability, and the perception or illusion of control over stimuli have been suggested. These conceptualizations, although useful, share what may be seen as a major flawthey consider control primarily from the perspective of the observer rather than the actor. In these models, the labeling of control or lack of control is typically dependent on observation of the outcome of an action. A more useful concept of control may be one that focuses on the process involved in achieving that outcome. This model would consider control from the perspective of the actor. Consequently, all control would necessarily be perceived control, but "perceived" would be something of a misnomer-from the perspective of the actor, a perception is an actuality (cf. Langer, 1983). In this chapter, we note the particular manifestations and effects of the inappropriate observer perspective and outcome orientation in our discussion of various models of control. Also, we offer what may be a more useful operationalization of control, which involves the perspective of the actor and a process orientation.
