ABSTRACT
A further development was the idea to use conservation incentives through the incorporation of ecosystem service values into markets and so-called payments for ecosystem services schemes. Ecosystem services include ecosystem organisation or structure as well as ecosystem processes and functions. A wide range of linked 'bundles' of the final ecosystem services can be at risk, and, further, the values themselves are often contested. Ecological economics critics of the ecosystem services approach have warned against the use of the approach as an over-arching framework for policy if it is applied without recognising ecosystem complexity, scientific uncertainty and the existence of environmental limits and threshold effects. During the 1980s two 'camps' emerged with the 1988 formation of the International Society for Ecological Economics, which sought to distinguish itself from the more conventional environmental and resource economics tradition. A strong sustainability strategy is advocated and contrasted with the weak sustainability thinking prevalent in conventional economics.
