ABSTRACT
W omen continue to be disadvantaged in the labor force compared tomen (Vasquez, 2001). Women have less power, status, and incomethan men, even when they have identical qualifications and perform the same jobs (Bartol, 1999; Jacobs, 1995; Reskin & Padavic, 1994; Stroh, Brett, & Reilly, 1992). Moreover, work is highly segregated according to gender (Reskin & Roos, 1990). The majority of working women are in clerical, nursing, or service occupations, all of which have less status and monetary compensation than comparable male-dominated occupations (Jacobs & Steinberg, 1990; Peterson & Runyan, 1993). Women who do attempt to achieve in predominantly male occupations tend to encounter discrimination and a “glass ceiling” beyond which achievement is difficult (Burn, 1996; Kanter, 1977), yet men in predominantly female occupations tend to be given a ride to the top on a “glass escalator” (Williams, 1992). Even women who have been successful in extremely competitive, male-dominated work environments encounter gender discrimination. This was the case with Ann Hopkins, who acquired multimillion dollar projects for Price Waterhouse, but was declined partnership, in part, because she was deemed insufficiently feminine (Hopkins, 1996). More recently, female professors at the highly prestigious Massachusetts
Institute of Technology discovered that they were systematically awarded less research support and lower salaries than their male colleagues (MIT, 1999).
