ABSTRACT
In theory, the process of organizational identification begins simply with knowing that one is a member of an organization. In reality, organizational boundaries that distinguish members from nonmembers are increasingly less transparent and knowable. Membership in modern organizations is based on diverse types of ties to organizations that do not clearly delineate whether an individual is an insider or outsider. As Rafaeli (1997) described, traditional perspectives on organizations tend to view membership as a simple dichotomy and to deny membership status to individuals with nontraditional work relationships. For example, defining membership according to physical or temporal interactions (Pfeffer, 1982) excludes individuals who do not work within an organization's physical structure during standard work hours (e.g., telecommuters, virtual workers, and part-timers). In contrast, defining membership based on contractual relationships (Jensen & Meckling, 1976) fails to include contingent and temporary workers who are paid by employment agencies and volunteers who receive no financial remuneration for their services. Although formal definitions may classify certain individuals as nonmembers, these same individuals may identify psychologically with an organization, having feelings of membership and belonging (Ashforth & Mael, 1989).
