ABSTRACT
Radical reform, the sort needed in the Ottoman Empire, disrupts the lives of many, particularly those in power. Rather than risk changing an entire political and social system, human beings will naturally find ways to explain away their difficulties. Napoleon had invaded Egypt in the previous year, spreading the conquests of the French Revolution into the Middle East. Civil war is a horrible thought for any ruler. The image of Turks fighting Turks instead of resisting foreign enemies was perhaps abhorrent to Selim III. Mahmud meanwhile cemented his authority in the provinces, using politics, trickery, occasional force, and a policy of divide and conquer to end much of the power of the local lords. Language became a door opening onto European culture for Ottoman bureaucrats and high officials, and graduates of the Translation Office soon became the leading executives of the state.
