ABSTRACT
Roman law, articulated by the early third-century jurist Ulpian, denned maiestas, translated here as 'treason', as a crime 'that is committed against the Roman people or against their safety'. In the west, however, cultural and political confusion did induce actions, or the opportunities for actions, that could be considered to be treasonous when imperial authorities allowed foreigners to serve the Roman Empire and lead barbarian political entities simultaneously. Antoninus had been a wealthy merchant in the Roman east before entering imperial service as a financial official. A different model appears to have existed on the Rhine frontier, where, even in the mid-fourth century, the emperors allowed certain individuals to serve in Roman official positions while openly ruling their barbarian people. In the mid-fourth century, confusion about political loyalty emerged primarily in dealings with barbarian client states, mainly in the west, when emperors such as Valentinian allowed Germanic kings to exercise royal authority while serving in the Roman army.
