ABSTRACT
The advancement of educational opportunities across all levels of society was an important feature of nineteenth-century reforms in Britain. It emerged as a strong social force at both the local and national levels. With industrialization came the need for a well-educated workforce, and in many large towns organizations were established to provide opportunities for the middle and working classes to attend classes and discussions. Such organizations included Mechanics Institutions and Literary and Philosophical Societies (better known as the Lit and Phil). School education before the 1870 Education Act was provided by voluntary schools and church schools (attached to particular denominations), while wealthy parents paid for their children to attend public schools. The 1870 Act promoted by the Quaker MP, William Forster was the first legislation to tackle education in Britain at a national level, and established area school boards to take responsibility for schools in their localities.2 Compulsory education was enshrined in later legislation: in 1880 for children between the age of 5 and 10; in 1893 the age was raised to 11, and in 1899 to 12.
