ABSTRACT
Introduction Beginning with China’s initial drive toward economic reform, which began in the late 1970s, the process of urbanization has been continuously pushed forward in China. In 2003, China’s urbanization rate reached 40.53 percent (National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic of China 2004), and this figure rose dramatically over the next decade, peaking at 53.73 percent in 2013 (National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic of China 2014). China’s accelerating urbanization has brought with it a sharp increase in the amount of municipal solid waste produced. In the process of urbanization, the disposal of municipal solid waste, which is a product of urban life, has become an urgent problem (Li et al. 2002: 35). Many Chinese cities see themselves as “besieged by waste” due to an ever-increasing amount of waste dumped in the suburban and rural areas surrounding the city. Faced with rapid industrialization and urbanization, significant population growth, and an explosion of non-biodegradable garbage, China is increasingly challenged by the waste problem. According to state statistics, the amount of municipal solid waste1 collected in China increased from 148 million tons to 172 million tons from 2003 to 2013 with an annual increase of roughly 8 percent (National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic of China 2004; 2014). Meanwhile, the amount of waste treated2 stood at 75.45 million tons in 2003, increasing to 153.94 million tons in 2013. China’s municipal solid waste is disposed of via landfill, incineration, and compost, the latter of which relies on microorganisms to break down organic substances in order to create organic fertilizer. However, the amount of China’s garbage that is disposed of according to these classified collection strategies is low and the composition of the waste is complicated, both of which have a direct limit on the amount of compost that can be produced and thus result in pollution (Committee of Municipal Domestic Refuse Treatment 2009: 17). On the one hand, compost is no longer recommended as a way to dispose of municipal solid waste by the Technical Guide for Garbage Disposal in China, which was released by the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development, National Development and Reform Commission, and the Ministry of Environmental Protection of P.R. China on April 22, 2010. On the other hand, incineration technology is used to produce a combustion reaction between oxygen in the air and the
combustible constituents of waste, thereby transforming waste into inorganic residue. Waste incineration produces multiple exhaust gases, including particulate matter, heavy metals, dioxins, and other pollutants, such that residents generally oppose this kind of technology (Huang and Tian 2000: 27). Further, the landfill method relies on storing solid waste underground. Through long-term microbial decomposition, waste is broken down into harmless compounds. Landfill technology is mature and can deal with large amounts of waste; therefore, it is likely that landfills will continue to play a prominent role in the treatment of waste in China for the foreseeable future (Mao et al. 2010: 12). In China, rural land is collectively owned by farmers as a matter of law. Yet, although this is the case, a local government can – in the name of public interest – take possession of rural land provided the owners are given corresponding compensation (Legislative Affairs Office of the State Council P.R. China 2004). Urban space is both limited and costly; therefore, most landfills are built outside cities in suburban and rural areas as directed by local government planning.3 Municipal solid waste is transported to rural areas, where it is stored in landfills to decompose naturally over time – on land once collectively owned by farmers (People’s Daily Online 2011). However, the landfill method is far from harmless to the environment. Because of waste fermentation, rain and groundwater soaking in the solid waste, landfills in which this waste is deposited produce leachate, which includes poisonous material (Chen et al. 2002: 27). The result is secondary pollution, which has brought a series of problems to local rural society and done great harm to the environment. However, there has been a noticeable improvement in wastetreatment technology, such as the use of high-density polyethylene film and methods to recycle landfill gas (Chen et al. 2002: 28). These new technologies are being applied to newly built landfills, yet many older landfills still rely on the more harmful disposal method. These older landfills, which contain large amounts of waste, have a negative effect on local environments. Many of China’s citizens have recognized this. All over China, collective protests have taken place to draw attention to this issue; for example, more than 200 villagers showed up to protest against the Wanshan landfill in Anhui Province in 2000 (Guang Ming Online 2000), and homeowners of three communities and workers living/working near the Liulitun waste landfill in Beijing went through a series of protests and litigations against the construction of a garbage incinerator in their neighborhood (Southern Weekly 2007). More recently, similar environmental protests have taken place in Panyu in Guangdong Province, Guilin in Guangxi Province, and Lu’an in Anhui Province, to name just a few. Rural residents suffer from secondary pollution due to the transportation of municipal solid waste to the countryside and pay a heavy social and environmental price for China’s urban development. On this point, there is one central concern: that China’s rural citizens do not partake in the benefits of urban development, yet pay the heaviest price for it in regard to the negative consequences for their immediate environments, i.e., environmental inequity.
