ABSTRACT
First, there was a reactionary shift toward liberalism on the part of many White mayors and city council members who began to appoint more African Americans as city managers after the civil disturbances. Second, the civil disturbances produced “White flight” from the cities to suburban areas. This resulted in more African Americans who were elected to mayoral and council positions whom, in turn, hired more African Americans as city managers. That new group of African American mayors, council persons, city managers, and administrators were able to impact major social movements, such as the Civil Rights Movement, because they were able to develop the policy positions (and the policies) for elected officials to enact, according to Murray (Murray, 2015).
