ABSTRACT
Quite obviously, the essential ingredients for informed decision making are information and advice. The latter includes varying perceptions about how the facts ought to be interpreted, assessments about what options are available for dealing with a particular issue, and judgments about what consequences are likely to follow from the implementation of any given option. Of course, even if the president is in possession of the best information and advice he can hope to get, there is still no guarantee that he will make the right decision. The facts and advice he receives may prove to be wrong. Or, his own biases may be so strong that he misperceives the realities of a situation and thus ignores the advice he receives. Or perhaps, circumstances may arise that could not have been anticipated at the time a decision was made. Yet, even if access to information and advice do not always ensure the right decision, it is even more likely that their absence will produce a bad one.
