ABSTRACT
Tradition As mentioned in Chapter 1, the traditional Chinese worldview saw the country as the Middle Kingdom: the center of the world and the hub of civilization. The concept of the nation-state system, with sovereign states interacting as theoretical equals, was unknown. Rulers of culturally inferior lands or their envoys were expected to appear in the Chinese capital, make the ceremonial kowtow of obeisance to the emperor, and present tribute. This consisted of costly gifts of local products-for example, lacquerware, incense, or exotic animals native to their areas. In return, the rulers received confirmation of their leadership over their own people as well as expensive gifts of Chinese workmanship. Reflecting its view of all other states as inferior, imperial China did not have a foreign ministry, but dealt with non-Chinese groups through its Board of Rites or Court of Colonial Affairs. The Chinese believed that their culture was superior in all respects-morally, materially, and aesthetically-and that it had universal validity.
