ABSTRACT
The New Invasion By the nineteenth century, China was not a society that was living up to its ideals. Tax assessments remained fixed while the population expanded rapidly, meaning that the monies available for public works diminished. Poor management led to popular discontent and domestic rebellion became a problem. As noted in Chapter 2, these were important indicators of a downturn in the dynastic cycle. When the West, newly commercially developed and eager for markets, arrived and demanded trade privileges that Chinese officialdom had no desire to grant, the Westerners were seen as a third indicator of dynastic decline: barbarian invasion.
