ABSTRACT
Steven Kerr’s substitutes for leadership theory started in the late 1970s (Kerr 1977; Kerr and Jermier 1978) and spanned some twenty years (Kerr and Slocum 1981; Howell, Dorfman, and Kerr 1986; Kerr, Hill, and Broedling 1986; Howell, Bowen, Dorfman, Kerr, and Podsakoff 1990; Frost 1997; Jermier and Kerr 1997). His work consisted entirely of journal articles (and an interview); there never has been a presentation in book form. Kerr is not saying that leadership in hierarchic organizations will be replaced completely by other factors; he merely is indicating that other factors in addition to leadership play an important role in controlling and influencing followers—and leaders, too. He wants to make the point that leadership is not the be-all and end-all of organizational functioning, that there are other sources of control within organizations. The evidence accumulated over many years points to the need for a theory of organizational control and influence processes that includes direct leader behavior as one factor among many. This is the point Kerr wishes to make. As Lord and Smith (1999) note, many of the substitutes are indirect products of managerial action, but not direct effects; an example would be an organizational control system originated by top management.
