ABSTRACT
Indigenous struggles have long been against injustices perpetrated not only by colonial rulers but also by modern states. The injustices primarily are the displacement from the land or denial of access to the land to enjoy their own cultural mores. In addition, for centuries, Indigenous peoples around the world have been struggling to establish the right to govern their nations and their lands. For most of that time, colonial powers denied them that right-a right today we call Aboriginal self-government (Penikett, 2012a). Britain fought a second war against Indigenous allies of the French who were led by Pontiac, a Ottawa warrior chief, after the British and Iroquois armies defeated the French in 1759. That resulted in the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which recognized First Nation governments as original landowners. Eventually, the Proclamation would lead to the negotiation of almost 400 Indian treaties in the United States and Canada. In 1876 Parliament passed the Indian Act, which turned the treaty signatories into dependents of the federal state. However, Canada’s Aboriginal peoples did not give up their struggle for land and governance rights (Penikett, 2012b).
