Autonomy and Accountability for Twenty-first-century Science 1

Among the most puzzling paradoxes of the knowledge society is the simultaneous need for more autonomy and more accountability in science. In relation to science, the word autonomy brings forth an image of freedom from external control, the provision of resources with 'no strings attached'. The word accountability, in contrast, brings to mind those very strings: paperwork, audits, and the idea of delivering on a contract. In this chapter, I argue that beyond the surface these two seemingly contradictory concepts are in fact compatible. Furthermore, the ways of combining them that have evolved in research policy may serve as examples for governance in the twenty-first century in other areas. In the next section, I explain why the knowledge society needs more of both autonomy and accountability. I then review the history between the two, as mediated through government funding for science in the United States, and describe in what sense each needs to be deeper in the knowledge society. In the conclusion, I indicate how lessons learned in research policy about decentralized democratic governance might be applied in other areas.