ABSTRACT
Europe has experienced growing anxiety, especially when Muslim minorities are concerned. Terrorist attacks have fueled mistrust and prejudice; and backlash against cultural and religious diversity has become a legitimate stance. If physical walls have returned on the European soil, also cultural walls and fences have been erected with the aim of preserving the social and cultural order of receiving societies. In an increasing number of European countries, the new policies include language tests for immigrants, before their arrival, on renewal of their stay permits, and not only at the moment of the acquisition of citizenship. The formal signing of special “integration agreements” according to a demand for “civic integration” is also required in several countries, like France and Italy. As C. Joppke points out, in the past European countries did not really pursue multicultural policies, but simply neglected developing integration policies.
