ABSTRACT
This chapter provides a detailed discussion on the occurrence and production, uses, chemical and physical properties, exposure and exposure limits, toxicokinetics, and effects of ruthenium in humans. The platinum-group metals are recovered from placer deposits of two intergrown alloys of the metals and from sulfide-ore bodies. Most of the new platinum-group metal recovery in the United States is from copper and gold refining. Ruthenium is used as a hardener for platinum and palladium alloys for jewelry and electrical contact. Ruthenium dissolves in fused alkalies and is slightly soluble in aqua regia. The chemistry of ruthenium is more similar to that of osmium than of the other platinum-group metals. The effects of ruthenium in humans include information on acute toxicity, chronic toxicity, biochemistry, specific organs and systems, teratogenicity, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity.
