ABSTRACT
This chapter provides a detailed discussion on the occurrence and production, uses, chemical and physical properties, exposure and exposure limits, toxicokinetics, and effects of tin in humans. Tin is found in a number of minerals. Tin is produced by smelting to the oxide, then reducing with carbon or reducing gases. The crude metal is then purified with heat or electrolytically. There is one smelter in the United States in Texas City, Texas, which operates on imported tin concentrates. Most tin is used as the metal as a protective coating (tin plate). Most of the rest goes into alloys, including solder, bronze, brass, babbitt metal, and pewter. Tin compounds are used as dyes, pigments, ceramics, bleaching agents, flame retardants, and fluoride sources in toothpaste. The effects of tin in humans include information on acute toxicity, chronic toxicity, biochemistry, specific organs and systems, teratogenicity, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity.
