Introduction

John A. Gallagher and Ronald E. Robinson, two respected British historians, define imperialism as a method of incorporating new areas into an “expanding economy.” They propose that empire is political and economic in nature, and “is determined not only by the factors of economic expansion, but equally by the political and social organization of the regions brought into the orbit of the expansive society, and also by the world situation in general." To some historians of nineteenth century imperialism the Robinson and Gallagher thesis is flawed. The “imperialism of free trade” did not necessarily include formal territorial acquisition or military occupation of a dependent society. By its very nature, the open door policy was one of response rather than action, and it was dependent on an aggressive, dedicated man-on-the-spot who could be controlled from London. Sir Claude M. MacDonald’s success at Peking depended on the effectiveness of pro-British, Chinese collaborators.