ABSTRACT
This chapter provides a larger perspective on sixteenth-century society and the developments that will influence culture, society, and politics in the seventeenth century. In the national model, the state sought to create a unified culture and sense of belonging. From Mexico to Kongo to China, each society had a hereditary aristocracy that enjoyed social and/or legal privileges. In China, members of the gentry wore black gowns with insignia that announced their rank in society. Commercial activity required strong institutions of government, which led to the transfer of state power from a personal dynasty to an administrative apparatus in which the ruler was only one part of a complex system. The transformations required a new set of cultural incentives for the elite, who in many cases increasingly defined themselves outside of a purely military role. Ruling over a variety of ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups, empires could not secure loyalty to a particular culture.
