ABSTRACT
A secondary wave of revolutionary struggles spread through Latin America in the mid-twentieth century, the result of a combination of factors including: the emergence of populism, import-substituting economics, modernization, rural–urban migration, and a rising tide of unfulfilled expectations. The nationalization of three important tin mines and land reforms directed to benefit the poor sent a contradictory message to Washington policy makers. The mine owners were the famous “tin magnates,” millionaire Bolivians who lived outside the country, mostly in Europe. The same year that Paz assumed power in Bolivia, Guatemalan president Jacobo Arbenz implemented a sweeping agrarian reform program designed to bring modernity to his country. In Bolivia, United States presence and investment were minimal, and the Eisenhower government sought to engage the moderate Paz and his followers. The second phase of the operation involved moving in a hand-picked successor, Carlos Castillo Armas, from Honduras with a hastily trained army to put pressure on the Arbenz government.
