ABSTRACT
In high-performing urban schools, teachers ensure that students have at least a moderate understanding of a concept before they ask students to perform the task independently. When teachers are confident that students understand the essential concepts and processes associated with the lesson, teachers proceed to provide collaborative learning activities. Teachers devoted the necessary time to “sharpening the axe” through guided instruction and collaborative instruction. Students were allowed to practice independently only when the teacher had seen evidence that students possessed the knowledge and/or skill necessary to proceed successfully. Many urban educators may believe they retain greater control of their classrooms and their school when they minimize teacher–student interaction and eliminate student–student interaction and maximize the time students spend completing routine tasks. Some teachers and administrators persist in their use of counterproductive practice strategies, in part because they worry that behavior problems would escalate if they abandoned their ineffective teaching routines.
