ABSTRACT
Integrated ocean management uses specific approaches and tools to assist with marine decision-making. These approaches may also be used to analyse existing and formulate new policies. They are characteristically multi-sector, forward-looking and inclusive and attempt to inform durable decisions. Integrated approaches began with coastal zone management (CZM) in the 1970s, followed by ecosystem approaches to management (EAM), marine protected areas (MPAs), systematic conservation planning (SCP), marine spatial planning (MSP) and cumulative effects (CE).
