ABSTRACT
To a greater or lesser degree, China had been able to rein them in, incorporating them into the Chinese cultural world, even as those cultural forces often served to modify or supplement Chinese culture in turn. They offered no indication that they would ever accept the Chinese cultural tradition. Borrowing Western technology had a way of undercutting traditional Chinese cultural substance. The logical fallacy of the self-strengtheners was one that would begin to open China up to new, often unpredictable forces. In the twenty-one years from 1874 to 1895, China lost its three most important tributary states: the Ryokyo Islands, Vietnam, and Korea. All three cases underscore how deeply the tributary mentality continued even though on paper it had been dead since 1860 and even though in Korea, China melded it with imperialism. Empress Dowager is perhaps the most controversial figure in modern Chinese history. Certainly part of her reputation comes from the traditional Chinese negative attitude toward female rulers.
