ABSTRACT
Women in early modern Europe, like those in most of the world’s cultures in most periods, generally gave birth assisted by female relatives and friends. Women who had particular talents or inclination were often called to assist more regularly, and gradually such women began taking payment for their work, evolving into professional midwives. Midwives were trained by watching and helping more experienced midwives, but beginning in the sixteenth century in some parts of Europe, governments began to regulate midwifery and require midwives to swear an oath if they wished to obtain a license. In some places, including Scotland and various German states, unmarried women who did not report a pregnancy risked the death penalty if the child died even if there was no evidence of actual infanticide. As a result, midwives could also be called as witnesses in trials for infanticide, which increased in frequency throughout the sixteenth century.
