ABSTRACT
One usage in the comparative education literature that gives some regard to relational positioning is that associated with the distinction between so-called downwardly coupled and upwardly coupled secondary school systems. Thus Clark distinguished the downwardly coupled American secondary schools from the upwardly coupled German Gymnasien and French lycees. The Swiss similarity to the American case is manifested mainly through the bottom heaviness of the political system, which leads to the much stronger role of local communities and school boards in the governance of especially the primary schools. In Switzerland most primary school teachers are still trained at teachers colleges that—since 1966 almost uniquely in Europe—were located at the secondary, and not the higher, education level. In Japan more than nine out of ten students were attending high school full time, reflecting a lower drop-out rate than the United States.
