ABSTRACT
VINCENT GOOSSAERT If many of the gods of Chinese religion have an unclear past, or have been outright invented, Guan Yu 關羽 (?–220) is without doubt a historical figure, who has moved on to a second (longer, and more successful) career as a god, eventually reaching the rank of emperor, di 帝, as Xietian huguo zhongyi dadi 協天護 國忠義大帝 in 1590, and then Sanjie fumo dadi 三界伏魔大帝 in 1614. The story of the Guandi cult is the topic of a forthcoming book by Barend ter Haar1 which is sure to become authoritative. I am only providing here the briefest possible outline, so as to focus on its spirit-writing aspect. Guandi’s cult likely began shortly after his tragic death, executed by his enemies; it long remained rather inconspicuous before rising to national visibility during the Song period, when it was actively promoted both by Buddhists, who accommodated him as a monastic guardian deity, and Daoists who turned him into one of their most prominent exorcistic martial deities.2 He was subsequently adopted in the canon of state sacrifices, rising continually to reach the rank of di, emperor, in 1614; and being elevated to the same level as Confucius in 1853 – in the context of the Taiping Civil War (1850-1864), when he became the most prominent supernatural force fighting on the loyalist side.
