ABSTRACT
ThekeymetaphorintheculturaldebatewasdrawnneitherfromBiblical textsnorfrommentalscience,butfromphysiology.Dependingonthe perspective,newspapersweredescribedasmeanswherebytheindividual orsocialbodymighteitherbenourishedorpoisoned.Insomecases, newspapersmightalsoinjecttheonlyeffectiveantidotetothevenom ingestedthroughunwisereading.Inthisrespect,thearguments connectedwiththoseemployedelsewhereinthecontemporarytreatment ofculturalissues.Althoughthenewspaperasaspecificformof communicationwassubjectedtoconsiderablescrutiny,newspaper journalismwasalsoknowntooperatewithinalargercontextofother mediaforms,eachofwhichproduceditsowncriticaltheoretical discourses.Inparticular,thecapacityofjournalismtoinfluence individuals,andtoconstructandinteractwithapublic,formedpartof awiderdebateonthesocialconsequencesofcheapliterature.Muchof thisdebatefocusedoncheapradicalpamphlets,ballads,broadsides, magazinesandpopularfiction.Atfirstsight,thenewspaper,asa modern,cheaplyaccessibleandstrikinglyillustratedpublicationwas unlikelytoberegardedasasaferalternativetotheseolderpopularforms ofprint.Buttheelasticityofnewspaperformats,andthepolymorphic natureofnews,meantthatdescriptionsofeventswereencasedwithin particularreadingsofthoseevents.Thismightbeachievedeither implicitlywithinthenewsitem,orexplicitlybyjuxtaposingthestory witheditorialcomment.Eitherway,readerswouldbegettingamessage, orsoJamesGrahamhopedwhenin1808headdressedtheLiteraryand PhilosophicalSocietyofNewcastleuponTyneonthisissue.Byarguing thattheextensionofsocialknowledgethroughliteracyprovidedthebest safeguardagainstpopularinsurrections,heproposedthatfoodriotsand otherpopulardisturbanceswerecausednotbyfoodshortages, unemploymentorpricerisesinthemselves,butbyaninabilityofthose inpowertoexplainto'thelowerordersofthepeople'whythesethings wereoccurring.Socialconflictwastheproductofpoorcommunication betweengovernmentsandpeople.Incontrast,inthosepartsofthe countrywhereliteracywashigh,andgood,cheapformsofprinted
communicationswerereadilyavailable,thelabouringpoorwere
Bythe1820s,suchviewshadgainedgreatercurrency.Inananonymous reviewofThePeriodicalPressofGreatBritainandIreland;or,an InquiryIntotheStateofthePublicjournals,ChieflyasRegardsTheir MoralandPoliticalInfluence(1824),publishedintheWestminster ReviewinJuly1824,thereaderwasconfidentlyassuredthat
Itwas,aboveall,their'miscellaneouscharacter'thatgavenewspapers theirvalueoverpublicationsthatspecialisedpurelyinpoliticalnewsand comment.Byscanningdiscreteitemsonthepage,'theunderstandingsof itsreadersareledonbydegreesfromthesimplestdomesticoccurrences tothosewhichaffecttheirremotestinterest,orappealtotheirnoblest sympathies:fromtheoverturningofacoachtotheoverturningofan empire'.Itwashardlypossible,accordingtothereviewerof1824,that anewspaperreader,howevernarrowhisowninterestsmightbe,could 'castaboutinsuchamassofinformation...withoutstumblingon somethingwhichenlargeshisideasorexerciseshisreason'.Itwas,he insisted,necessarytohave'seenapeopleamongwhomnewspapershave notpenetrated,toknowthemassofmischievousprejudiceswhichthese productionsinstantlyandnecessarilydissipate'.Citingthebeliefin witchcraft,andthefurydirectedagainstbakersandother'dealersin provisions'duringperiodsoffoodshortages,thereviewerarguedthat
Muchemphasiswasalsoplacedonthegreateraccuracyofprinted information,particularlywhere,asinthereportingofcourtcases,the onlyalternativeswerebywordofmouth.Theactofprintingastorywas, initself,oftenassumedtobeasufficientguaranteeofitsveracity.Belief inthetruthfulnessthatwasinherentinthepermanenceofprint,in contrasttothemutabilityofspeech,meantmoreoverthatnewspapers hadbroughtearlynineteenth-centuryEnglishsociety'backfrom traditiontoscripture'. 3WilliamStevenson,writinginBlackwood's EdinburghMagazineinNovemberofthesameyear,agreedthatthe growthof'moreaccurateandextensiveinformation,spreadoveralarger surfaceofthecommunity'couldbeattributedtothenewspaper,which had'insinuateditselfintoeverynookandcorner',and,'likecaloric', expandedwhateveritenteredinto.Thisprocesscouldnotfailto'enlarge thecapacityofthehumanmind,createnewintellectualdesiresand wantsandthemeansofsatisfyingthem'. 4Suchsociallyusefuland stabilisinginformation,however,wasnotconveyed'bythedirect inculcationofopinions,butbythehabitoflookingbeyondthenarrow circleofone'sownpersonalobservationtotheresultsofamoreenlarged observation'.Inthismanner,anewspaperbecametheinstrumentwhich enabledtheindividualtomakefreshconnectionsbetweendisparate eventsandexperiences,andto'availhimselfoftheexperienceofthe wholecommunity'.Ipsofacto,byvirtueofbeinganewspaperreader,the individualjoinedalargerifill-definedandscarcelyimaginable communityofreaders.5Opinionsandtasteswereformedinthisnexus, asreaders,unawareatfirstoftheinconsistenciesand'strangemixtureof truthanderrorintheiropinions',were,bymeansoftheinformation habituallysuppliedbythenewspaper,ableto'testallthateducation, habit,authority,andcircumstances,haveledthemtobelieve'.6Thusthe presscontributedtoprogressnotonlybypublishingnewideas,but, moresimplyandimportantly
andmutualcontemptforoneanother,theworstoftheeditorialquarrels beingnotbetweeneditorsofopposingpoliticalpositions,butamong thosewhowerecompetingfortheattentionofthesamereadership. Whilenewspapers,beingreadbywhatheregardedtobe'agreat proportionofthepeople',mightnotthemselvesheresponsibleforthe 'spiritofrage'thatwassoprevalentinhissociety,theirgeneralconduct evidentlywasnotcalculatedtoreduceitsvirulence.'Whodoesnotthink andfeel',Liveseywondered,'...inthecurrentlanguageofthepaper whichheisaccustomedtoread?' 11
Thecorrespondencebetweenreadingandthewaysinwhichthoughts andfeelingswereinternalisedbythereaderraisedforLiveseytwo furtherproblemsforthesocialandmoralorder.Thefirstinvolvedthe dangerofbeingbothpsychologicallyandphysicallystimulatedby readingwhileconsumingalcohol.Drinkandtexts,hecontended,served tointensifyeachother'sintoxicatingpropensities.Whiledrinkreduced thereader'scapacityforcriticalreflection,inflammatorywriting legitimatedthedrinker'spotentiallyviolentanddisorderlyconduct.The secondproblemlayinthewayinwhichreaderselevated(thewrong) writersintopopularheroes.Writersofstrong,vividnewspaperprose weresaidatthetimetobe'menofmetal',whose'mawling'and 'blacking'Liveseywasappalledtodiscoverwereregardedas'proofof superiortalent.'Givenhisbeliefthatnewspapersexerted'alarge influenceinformingthecharacterofthepeople',12Liveseyappearstobe sayingtwoquitedistinctthingshere.Inthefirstplace,hiswordsshould beseenintheircontext,whichwashisattempttolaunchatemperance pennypaper,theMoralReformer,intheearlymonthsof1838.Thatis tosay,theargumentmaybereadasasalespitchtopersuadereadersthat hisownproductwasqualitativelydifferentfromothersavailableonthe market.Inthatsense,hetoowasprojectinghimselfasa'manofmetal' eventotheextentofinsertinghisnameintothefirsttitleofhis publication,andthereafterremindingtheworldthatitwashisown individualspiritwhichmovedthroughitspages.Becauseof,ratherthan despite,hisprotestationstothecontrary,Liveseyconformedtothemost rudimentaryoftheindividual-enhancingstylesthatsurfacedinearly Victorianjournalism.Atanotherlevel,however,hiswordscanberead asreflectionsonthepowerofthenewspaperspresstochangeorconfirm thebeliefsofreaders,andtolegitimisecertainformsofbehaviour.Given whathedescribedastheextensivecirculationsofnewspapersinthelate 1830s-thefourpennydutyoneachcopyhadrecentlybeenreducedto onepenny-Liveseyhadgraspedthepossibilitythatthecheapperiodical
press could also counter social practice, and contest the dominant assumptions about social conduct. For newspapers to become the agencies of 'progress', they required more than able editors and writers. Above all, they needed to be infused with the determination 'to raise the moral tone of the community'. To achieve this goal, newspaper journalism should be obliged to ensure the accuracy of its statements, and to reduce its political partisanship. 'Bad party spirit', in the reporting of events, warped editorial judgement and suppressed truth. Political interest, accompanied by financial pressure, encouraged newspapers to follow rather than 'to correct, the taste of the public'. The losers in this market-place were newspaper readers who, Livesey implied, would 'prefer the simple truth without editorial colouring'.
