ABSTRACT
Advances in nuclear and particle physics have provided a range of novel techniques for semiconductor characterization and doping (Feldman and Mayer, 1986). Particles used to probe solids include protons, helium nuclei, heavy ions, highenergy photons (x-rays and gamma rays), electrons, positrons, muons, and neutrons. In this chapter, particle-beam methods that are relevant to impurities and defects in semiconductors are discussed. We begin with techniques that involve ion beams; namely, Rutherford backscattering, ion implantation, and secondary ion mass spectrometry. Techniques that utilize x-ray emission and absorption are summarized. Basic interactions of electrons with matter are discussed; electron microscopy is covered in Chapter 11. The chapter concludes with techniques that involve gamma rays: positron annihilation, muon spin resonance, perturbed angular correlation, and nuclear reactions.
