ABSTRACT
Understanding some of the basic concepts related to effective management and leadership can prove valuable to those working or supporting organizational accident prevention efforts� This chapter provides a brief review of management theory and functions� It also provides a quick overview of key leadership principles that should complement management efforts� Some people think of leadership as just another function of management� However, I prefer to view management as the key support function of sound leadership� Organizational leaders and those that manage hazard control functions must consider the roles that people play in preventing or contributing to accidents and injuries� Many people view managing as an art that anyone can master with practice� Others view managing as a learned discipline or social science� Good managers seem to demonstrate that managing consists of learning and practice� The word “manager” can also refer to an individual’s job or position title� How often do we meet someone with the title of manager who demonstrates little understanding of even basic management principles? Individuals do not become effective managers because they hold the title or position� Too often society misuses the term “manager” much like it also overuses the word “safety�” We tend to use both words out of context or without much thought to their true meanings�
Leading simply refers to taking actions to influence others toward attainment of organizational goals and objectives� Effective leaders understand the importance that human engagement plays in goal accomplishment� Human engagement refers to the concept where individuals personally feel their connection to their position and to organizational success� Human engagement contributes to personal satisfaction, which helps increase productivity, morale, and motivation� Some organizations now realize the need for balancing organizational demands with a person’s family and other life issues� Individuals, when away from the organization, serve in a variety of roles including volunteer, caregiver, and parent� Understanding the concept of human engagement helps leaders and hazard control managers better understand the behaviors and reactions of individuals to organizational issues and decisions� Conflicting responsibilities can lead to role misunderstandings and overloads that can impact their support for organizational objectives including hazard control efforts�
Effective leading requires a manager to motivate subordinates, communicate effectively, and effectively use power� To become effective at leading, managers must first understand their subordinates’ personalities, values, attitudes, and emotions� Leaders need to identify opportunities to reward personal and team success� Place the emphasis on improving organizational systems and processes instead of blaming individuals� True leaders focus on processes and must learn to educate followers instead of dictating to them� Leaders who use conditional statements to encourage others must also listen closely before taking actions� Leaders must promote ownership or buy in of hazard control as an organizational value� Encourage creativity to increase responsible actions of those being led� However, leaders must establish and communicate expectations in clear and concise terms� Taking these actions will reduce the need for any future mandates� True leaders learn to trust in their people skills while remaining uncertain about how to best meet objectives� Effective leaders learn to look
beyond numbers if possible and resist trying to quantify everything� Leaders must learn to make both tactical and strategic decisions� They must possess a vision of the organization structure and the path that it’s traveling� System thinking helps leaders to see the big picture or the true organizational cultures that impact failure and success� Formal leaders must become effective ambassadors of the hazard control message�
Effectiveness refers to taking the right actions to achieve a desired or expected outcome� Emotional issues can impact and even sidetrack the best hazard control efforts� True leaders must learn to use logic when seeking to reduce accidents and injuries� The appropriateness and quality of decisions at every organizational level can impact hazard control effectiveness� Leaders should understand that repetition acts as the mother of learning� Leaders should also consider human learning abilities, including retention of information, when developing orientation, education, and training sessions� Hazard control promotes the importance of recognizing and identifying unsafe work conditions and behaviors� Stress the importance of improving worker awareness of hazards and exposures encountered on the job� Supervisors should continuously stress the need for improving awareness on the job� High reliability organizations that use system safety methods place a strong emphasis on both task and situational awareness on the job�
BOX 2.1 CONCEPTS LEADERS MUST UNDERSTAND
• Character refers to the moral or ethical structure of an individual or group� • Belief refers to the mental act or habit of placing trust in someone or something� • Value refers to an individual’s perception of worth or importance assigned to something� • Culture reflects the socially accepted behaviors, beliefs, and traditions of a group� • Attitude refers to an individual’s personal state of mind or feeling about something� • People can perform a job or task and hide their attitude from others� • Behavior relates to an open manifestation of a person’s actions in a given situation�
BOX 2.2 SAFETY LEADERSHIP BASICS
• Keep work areas safe from risks and hazards • Emphasize the importance of safe behaviors • Educate employees regarding safety performance • Communicate clearly the organization’s safety goals and objectives • Make safety part of every job or task • Promote a total safety culture • Keep all employees informed regarding successes and failures • Reward safe behaviors • Correct unsafe worker actions • Never use safety as a disciplinary tool • Never promote safety as simply a compliance issue • Promote safety as the right thing to do • Remember that attitudes are caught never taught • Emphasize good judgment and common sense • Understand the relationships of culture, communication, and coordination
When addressing leadership, consider ethics as vital since it provides the foundation of any hazard control management function� Without ethics, hazard control loses its organizational and personal value� Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary defines ethics as the (1) “discipline of dealing with good and bad with moral duty and obligation,” and (2) “a set of moral principles or values or a theory or system of moral values�” Ethics finds its roots in natural law, religious tenets, parental or family influence, educational experiences, life experiences, cultural norms, and societal expectations� Business ethics refers to the application of the discipline, principles, and ethical theories to the organizational context� We can define business ethics as the “principles and standards that guide behaviors in the business world�” Ethical behaviors remain an integral part of conducting business affairs� The three considerations that impact and influence ethical decision-making in business include individual difference factors, operational or situational factors, and issue-related factors�
It seems so easy to create and use the phrase “safety management” as if communicating a definitive concept or process� However, safety management can mean different things to different people� The National Safety Management Society defines the term as “��� that function which exists to assist all managers in better performing their responsibilities for operational system design and implementation through either the prediction of management systems deficiencies before errors occur or the identification and correction of management system deficiencies by professional analysis of accidental incidents (performance errors)�” This definition stresses the importance of identifying and correcting management-related deficiencies� Many people never think of addressing management deficiencies when referring to the term “safety management�” Poor and inefficient management provides opportunities for accidents to occur� Some individuals also think of management and leadership as synonymous terms� You can manage materials, projects, and processes, but you must lead people� Organizations need all managers and supervisors to provide hazard control leadership to their subordinates� I often made this statement while teaching safety educational sessions: “Good leaders who can’t or don’t want to be burdened down with the managerial details must quickly find someone who can help them�” I then follow up with this statement: “Good managers who can’t lead or don’t want to lead need to quickly learn the art of delegating to someone who can�” Dealing with too many details can cause operational managers to become overburdened with objectives, goals, and time constraints� Many organizations now use “project management” personnel to oversee the activities of long-term or complex projects� Leaders must move toward meeting established objectives but do so by considering both people and processes during the journey� Hazard control management efforts without leadership can easily fail� However, hazard control professionals not using good management techniques can also fail in meeting expectations or objectives� Managers must set an example by following work rules and behavioral expectations established for their subordinates� Organizational members must see management personnel consistently setting a positive example in the area of hazard control� Managers must make practicing safety a priority and lead by example� They must learn to help others achieve personal success while meeting established organizational objectives� People perform better when provided with the proper information, the necessary tools, and the delegated authority to get a job done� People must view themselves as participants in a project and never as a pawn of a manager�
The concept of knowledge management goes beyond the concept of information technology� Many organizations manage information but neglect to manage knowledge� Managing knowledge requires the identification, analysis, and understanding of all operational processes� Knowledge provides no
organizational value unless the information is relevant, available, and disseminated to end users� The failure to communicate accident and hazard information can result in poor analysis of hazards or accident experience� Each organizational process, department, or function must contribute information about accidents, hazards, and unsafe behaviors� This aggregate knowledge provides the basis for determining appropriate hazard controls, the need for training or education, or required innovations to improve performance�
People employ management concepts to help them make good decisions� Managers must constantly evaluate alternatives and make decisions regarding a wide range of matters� Decision-making involves uncertainty and risk, and decision-makers possess varying degrees of risk aversion when making decisions� Decision-making may require evaluating information and data generated by qualitative and quantitative analyses� It must rely not only on rational judgments, but factors such as decision-maker personality, peer pressure, organizational situations, and a host of other issues� Management “icon” Peter Drucker identified several key decision-making practices that successful executives used� Leaders should consider the following questions before making decisions� The first question simply asks, “What needs accomplishment?” The second question seeks to find out, “What’s best for the organization?” When a decision-maker gets the answers, he or she can then proceed with developing a plan of action� Decision-makers must take responsibility for their actions� True decision-makers use team pronouns such as “we” and never the self-gratifying pronoun “I�”
Workplace-related psychological safety demonstrates itself when employees feel unable to put themselves on the line, ask questions, seek feedback, report problems, or propose a new idea without fearing negative consequences to themselves, their jobs, or their career� A psychologically safe and healthy workplace actively promotes emotional well-being among employees while taking all reasonable steps to minimize threats to employee mental health�
The study of crisis management originated with the large-scale industrial and environmental disasters in the 1980s� Three elements common to most definitions of crisis include determining threats to the organization, planning for the elements of surprise, and making decisions in short time frames� The fourth element relates to addressing the need for change� When change does not take place, some could view the event as a failure or incident� Crisis management uses response methods
BOX 2.3 TIPS FOR IMPROVING ORGANIZATIONAL KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
• Identify the knowledge that the organization already possesses • Determine the kinds of knowledge that the organization needs • Evaluate how knowledge can add value to organizational effectiveness • Create processes to help the organization achieve objectives • Maintain and effectively use knowledge assets to improve the organization
that address both the reality and perception of crises� Organizations should develop guidance to help define what constitutes a crisis and what triggers would require immediate response�
Traditional organizational structure follows two basic patterns� The first structure, referred to as a line organization, permits top management to maintain complete control with a clearly defined chain of command� This basic line structure works well in small companies with the owner or top manager functioning at the top of the organizational structure� Everyone understands the clear lines of distinction between the owner or manager and subordinates� A line-and-staff organization combines the line organization with appropriate staff departments that provide support and advice to the line functions of the organization� Many medium and large organizations use the line-and-staff structure with multiple layers of staff managers supporting overall operations� An advantage of the line-and-staff organizational structure relates to the availability of technical and managerial functions� The organization incorporates these needed staff and support positions into the formal chain of command� However, conflict can arise between line-and-staff personnel, creating disruptions within the organization� This conflict can at times impact the effectiveness of the hazard control management function� Hazard control managers must remain focused on identifying and correcting the causes of accidents regardless of the organizational structure� However, they must understand that organizational structure can hinder accident prevention efforts�
Organizational leaders must integrate the function of hazard control into the organizational management structure with clearly defined responsibility and authority� Top management must focus on identifying and correcting operational and staff management-related deficiencies that could hinder hazard control efforts� The organizational structure must consider developing processes that help identify and analyze system deficiencies that contribute to accidents� Leaders must ensure that support functions such as human resources, facility management, and purchasing receive information about their management deficiencies that could impact hazard control� Consider the following scenario: a human resource department mistakenly assigns a new employee to a hazardous job position without properly screening or evaluating the person’s qualifications� This could contribute to an accident or mishap� Senior leaders of staff and departments must understand their roles and responsibilities related to hazard control� Many organizational structures permit and even unknowingly encourage support or staff department managers to create their own “little dynasty�” This can result in the self-coronation of “turf kings and queens�” Once crowned, these rulers may not see the need to coordinate or communicate important issues with other functions�
Organizational culture consists and exists based on assumptions held by a particular group� These assumptions can include a mix of values, beliefs, meanings, and expectations held in common by its members� Cultures can determine acceptable behaviors and problem solving processes� Organizational trust refers to the positive and productive social processes existing within the workplace� Trust can encourage group members to engage in cooperative and expected organizational behaviors� Trust also provides the foundation for demonstrating commitment and loyalty� For example, an organization with a safety and health focused culture enhances the well-being, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment of all members� A culture with social support systems can enhance a member’s well-being by providing a positive work environment for those dealing with depression or anxiety� The established culture sets the tone for an organization� Negative cultures can even hinder the effectiveness of the best plans and policies� Unhealthy cultures create stressful environments, which can lower employee well-being and impact organizational productivity�
Many times senior managers fail to acknowledge the existence of the covert, informal, and hidden cultures� They incorrectly hold the belief that the established overt, formal, or open culture drives organizational success and productivity� They also fail to acknowledge the tremendous influence of hidden cultures on organizational behaviors� Why do these hidden cultures exist? They exist to meet the needs of its members� Failing to acknowledge these hidden cultures can hinder an organization’s ability to change or improve the formal culture� The actual climate, not the established structure, exerts the most influence on organizational performance� Hidden cultures can also support a very effective organizational communication process known as the grapevine� The grapevine serves as the informal and confidential communication network that quickly develops within any organization to supplement the formal channels� The actual function of the grapevine will vary depending on the organization� For example, it could communicate information inappropriate for formal channels� The grapevine can carry both good and bad organizational news� The grapevine in some instances serves as a medium for translating top management information into more understandable terms� The grapevine also serves as a source of communication redundancy to supplement formal channels� When formal communication channels become unreliable, the grapevine can quickly operate as the more trusted communication system�
BOX 2.5 IMPROVING THE SAFETY CULTURE
• Never use orientation sessions to conduct performance-based safety training or education
• Conduct safety orientation topics during the morning • Require supervisors to conduct and document job-related training • Centralize all respirator fit testing activities to ensure proper training • Do not insist on a sign-in for training (documentation becomes more important than
learning) • Have all workers document their training by completing, at a minimum, a 10-question
quiz • Train second-and third-shift workers on their shift • Orient second-and third-shift workers on their shift • Provide mandatory education for third-shift workers regarding stress and sleep
deprivation • Establish an off-the-job safety education program • Address an off-the-job safety topic at every safety function
BOX 2.4 ELEMENTS FOR CREATING SAFETY CULTURES
• Positive perception of teamwork • Safe behaviors exist as the norm • Job satisfaction • Perception of senior management effectiveness • Recognizing the reality of job-related stress • Adequacy of supervision, education, and training • Opportunities for effective organizational learning • Nonpunitive response to error by leaders
Some organizations use socialization processes to educate new members about the organization’s cultures� Socialization can occur in both formal and informal culture arenas� The socialization process will determine which culture, formal or informal, will exert the most influence on an individual� Organizational members then must decide to remain in or leave the organization� Many that stay may experience isolation� Leading culture change requires a sound understanding of organizational behaviors, attitudes, expectations, and perceptions� Changing the organizational culture must also impact the behaviors, attitudes, and perceptions of all organizational members� Leaders must use all available sources to communicate the “change” message� Change can have both a negative and positive impact on leaders as well� It can dethrone the turf kings and queens� However, it can encourage development of teamwork and continuous improvement processes�
When leading change within any organization, never forget the importance of communication and feedback throughout the entire journey� Most people naturally resist change, which causes organizations to change very slowly� First-level change deals with people, structure, policies, and procedures� Second-level change deals with complex systems, cultures, and processes� Many people now view change as an inherent and integral part of organizational life� Some new trends in organizational dynamics emerged during recent years� These emerging trends can create conflict and concern for organizational leaders and members� They can create both opportunities and threats in the minds of people� Any change creates tensions that leaders must address to prevent unwanted or dysfunctional change� Many organizations now operate on a global scale with increased competition� These organizations also must embrace economic interdependence and increased collaboration� This globalization results in a wide range of consumer needs and preferences�
Change does not occur just because a top manager writes a memo and declares it done� Organizational change must consider how to best transform the organization from within� When leaders communicate need and intent to change, they must provide information to address issues such as behaviors and expectations� Communicate the reasons for change so that everyone understands� Provide guidance and leadership to ensure change happens� Before change can occur in large organizations, leaders must acknowledge the existence and influence of hidden or covert cultures operating in the organization� Always articulate how change will impact all organizational members and operational functions� When educating others about change, provide sessions that focus on real situations� Work to change or shift the culture before implementing other innovations or interventions� Not to do so would provide no supporting foundation for the innovations or interventions� Leaders must promote trust and ensure the involvement of organizational members in decision-making processes� Provide team members with the opportunity to voice concerns or make suggestions that would help build trust� Encourage team members to express some kind of choice and allow them flexibility to make decisions related to their job tasks� Migrating decision-making permits individuals with the appropriate expertise, education, or experience, regardless of rank or position, to make an informed decision�
When changes in worksites, processes, materials, and equipment occur, hazards can emerge� During any change process, hazard surveillance and self-inspections must become frequent� Organizations should develop an enhanced hazard review process when undertaking major changes in processes, systems, or operations� Maintain sound coordination and communication systems among all parties involved in the change process�
Change may require revising existing job hazard analyses, reviewing standard operating practices, evaluating lockout methods, and assessing personal protective equipment requirements� Change-related hazard analyses could prove cost-effective in terms of preventing accidents, injuries, and other organizational losses� Individuals respond differently to change� Some organizational members may require additional time to adapt and accept the change�
The noninvolvement of staff functions and service components in hazard control can hinder success� Don’t ignore a natural interface of hazard control management with other support functions such as facility management, purchasing, and human resource management� Virtually every department and function of a modern organization contributes in some way to the effectiveness of the hazard control management function� There should be a greater interrelationship among staff and support functions that interface with accident prevention such as personnel, procurement, maintenance, etc� Too often, these functions operate in parallel tracks with little or no interaction� They must work in harmony to make an impact on preventing accidents and controlling hazards�
Operational and line elements must remain conscious of their roles in accident prevention in terms of organizational policy, regulations, procedures, safety inspections, and other activities to support the hazard control function� Frequently, technical advances result in acceleration of organizational activities without the provision for accompanying related safeguards by management� Planning, research, budget, and legal functions must interface with accident prevention and hazard control efforts�
As far as practical, the human resource (HR) function should recruit, evaluate, and place the right person in the right job in terms of physical ability and psychological adaptability� Incorporate into job descriptions specific physical requirements, known hazards, and special abilities required for optimum performance� Human resource professionals must identify all hazardous occupations and determine the knowledge, skills, abilities, physical requirements, and medical standards required to perform the job in a safe manner� All employees must receive appropriate orientation, training, and education necessary to support safe job accomplishments�
Facility management functions should ensure proper design layout, lighting, heat, and ventilation in work areas� Review specifications for new facilities, major renovations to existing facilities, and any plans for renting or leasing new work or storage areas� Maintenance activities should provide preventive maintenance service to avoid breakdown of equipment and facilities� Coordinate efforts with engineering, purchasing, and safety in reporting obsolete and/or hazardous equipment� Ensure that maximum safety is built into the work environment� It is much more efficient to correct a hazardous situation than to guard it or instruct employees to avoid it�
Occupational health professionals and hazard control managers must coordinate and communicate issues on a continuous basis� Provide prompt emergency treatment of all injuries and illnesses� The coordination of safety and health functions helps workers learn how to protect themselves from hazards� Recommend a multidisciplinary approach to manage health, risks, and costs� Report all workrelated incidents of injury and exposure allegations immediately to employee health� Employee health should monitor, manage, or coordinate all workers’ compensation injuries, reports on progress, imposition of necessary work restrictions, and return to work evaluations� Pre-employment placement evaluations should focus on job-related issues with a thorough job analysis as part of
the evaluation� If the evaluation indicates no medical causes for performance problems, refer the employee back to management for appropriate administrative action� A pre-placement assessment develops a baseline for medical surveillance and helps determine capability of performing essential job functions� The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requires job descriptions for all job offers needing pre-placement (post-job offer) physical capacity determinations� Functional capacity evaluations may help in determining job placement and modifications� Essential job functions can determine capability of a prospective employee to perform those functions with or without reasonable accommodations� Assessments may include an update of the occupational and medical histories, biological monitoring, and medical surveillance� Conduct a post-exposure assessment following any exposure incident� Determine the extent of exposure and develop measures for prevention� Rehabilitation involves facilitating the employee’s recovery to a pre-injury or illness state� Inform occupational health about the rehabilitation of workers with any illnesses or injuries including those not considered work related� The goal of case management is to work with the employee to facilitate a complete and timely recovery�
Workers’ compensation laws ensure that employees injured or disabled on the job receive appropriate monetary benefits, eliminating the need for litigation� These laws also provide benefits for dependents of those workers killed because of work-related accidents or illnesses� Some laws also protect employers and fellow workers by limiting the amount an injured employee can recover from an employer and by eliminating the liability of coworkers in most accidents� State workers’ compensation statutes establish this framework for most employment� The injury or illness must result from employment� Workers’ compensation provides benefits to the injured worker including medical coverage and wages during periods of disability� Employers can obtain coverage through commercial insurance carriers, establishing their own self-insurance program, or by being placed in a state-controlled risk fund� The state or the National Council of Compensation Insurance (NCCI), an independent rating organization, normally determines basic rates paid by employers� Factors affecting rates can include (1) company or fund quoting the coverage, (2) classification code(s) of the employer, (3) payroll amount for the work force covered, and (4) experience rating�
BOX 2.6 COMPONENTS OF THE EMPLOYEE HEALTH FUNCTION
• Bloodborne Exposure Control Plan (29 CFR 1910�1030) • Fitness-For-Duty (Local Policies) • Personal Protective Equipment (29 CFR 1910�132) • Eye Protection (29 CFR 1910�133) • Fire Safety (NFPA 101, 29 CFR 1910�38, Local and State Codes) • TB Policy (CDC Guidelines and Health Department Requirements) • Immunizations (CDC and Health Department Recommendations) • Radiation Safety (29 CFR 1910�1096) • Reproductive Hazards (OSHA, NRC, & NIOSH Recommendations) • Confidentiality of Medical Records (HIPAA and OSHA Standards) • Hazard Communication (29 CFR 1910�1200) • Substance Abuse (Local Policies) • Work-Related Injuries (29 CFR 1904) & Workers’ Compensation Statutes • OSHA Record Keeping (29 CFR 1904) • Hearing Protection (29 CFR 1910�95) • Work-Related Stress & Shift Work (NIOSH Publications)
The Federal Employment Compensation Act provides workers’ compensation for nonmilitary, federal employees� Many of its provisions remain typical of most workers’ compensation laws� Many times awards remain limited to disability or death sustained while in the performance of the employee’s duties� The act covers medical expenses due to the disability and may require the employee to undergo job retraining� A disabled employee receives two-thirds of his or her normal monthly salary during the disability� The Long Shore and Harbor Workers’ Compensation Act provides workers’ compensation to specified employees of private maritime employers� The Black Lung Benefits Act provides compensation for miners suffering from black lung or pneumoconiosis� The Act requires liable mine operators to pay disability payments and establishes a fund administered by the Secretary of Labor providing disability payments to miners when mine operators can’t pay� The World Health Organization (WHO) defines impairment as any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiologic, or anatomic structures or functions� The American Medical Association (AMA) defines impairment as loss, loss of use, or derangement of any body part, system, or function� WHO defines a disability as any restriction or lack of ability, resulting from an impairment, to perform an activity in the manner of within the range considered normal� Most states require examiners to use the AMA “Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment” to determine accurate impairment ratings� The AMA guidelines limit the range of impairment values reported by different examiners�
Establishing a realistic return to work function can save organizations financial losses due to fraudulent claims� Any “Return to Work Initiative” should accommodate injured workers by modifying jobs to meet their work capabilities� This action permits employees to become productive assets during their recovery� Early return to work options can accelerate an employee’s return by addressing the physical, emotional, attitudinal, and environmental factors that otherwise inhibit a prompt return� Senior management must commit to returning injured workers to productive roles� Develop profiles of jobs considered suitable for early return participants� A profile should define the job in terms of overall physical demands, motions required, environmental conditions, the number of times performed each week, and duration� Conduct a systematic analysis of specific jobs for the purpose of modifying them to accommodate the unique needs of the injured worker� Individuals skilled in ergonomic task analysis, engineering, safety, and biomechanics can help perform the job analysis� Managed care providers can also assist in job modifications� Communicate the availability of early return jobs with care providers, claims adjusters, and the injured worker� Work with your managed care provider and worker to move them to full production status in their assigned jobs as quickly as possible�
Substance use, misuse, abuse, and coping strategies can significantly impact mental health at work� Generally, substance use becomes a problem when an individual loses control over their use and/or continues to use despite experiencing negative consequences� Employers should look for warning signs for employees struggling with substance abuse� Signs of substance abuse can appear similar to those caused by stress, lack of sleep, and physical or mental illness� Identify abuse by establishing pre-employment, random, and “for cause” testing� Ensure the development and implementation of a testing policy� Refer and evaluate employees addicted to performanceimpairing drugs such as alcohol, narcotics, sedatives, or stimulants to qualified assistance or treatment facilities� Establish an agreement between the organization and the individual to address rehabilitation and random testing upon return to work� Measurable losses attributed to substance abuse can include absenteeism, overtime pay, tardiness, sick leave abuse, health insurance claims, and disability payments� Some of the hidden costs of substance abuse can include low morale, poor
performance, equipment damage, diverted supervisory time, and low production quality� Losses can include legal claims, workers’ compensation payments, disciplinary actions, security issues, and even dealing drugs in the workplace� Supervisors play the key role in maintaining an effective substance abuse policy�
Orientation relates to the indoctrination of new employees into the organization� Orientation can be defined as the process that informs participants how to find their way within the organization� Usually safety and hazard control topics only make up a portion of any new employee orientation session� Many well-meaning organizations attempt to present detailed safety and hazard control information during new employee orientation sessions� However, attempting to provide too much performance-based safety education during orientation can prove ineffective due to time constraints� Meeting the learning objectives must take precedence over simply documenting an educational session� New employee orientation sessions must address the importance of safety, management’s commitment, and worker responsibilities to practice good hazard control principles� Some performance-based Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standards require that employees receive more detailed instruction that orientation sessions can provide� Present this information in other education or training sessions� Education refers to the incorporation of knowledge, skills, and attitudes into a person’s behavior and includes the connotation of thinking� Education can provide information on topics previously trained� System safety methods use Instructional System Design (ISD) educational and training methods to ensure the competency of individuals working in or supporting operations� ISD requires development of competencies before designing educational and training sessions� The sessions presented focus on the competencies both in the classroom and in realistic operational or job settings� Another example of ISD usage occurs in the construction industry, which developed “tool box” safety presentations many years ago to ensure workers practice safety on the job� Sometimes we use the phrases “job-related training” or “job safety training” to refer to instructional system design� Training relates to the acquisition of specific skills while education refers to the incorporation of knowledge, skills, and attitudes into a person’s behavior� Consider training as the process of presenting information and techniques that leads to competency of those participating� Conduct hands-on training outside of a classroom if possible unless using realistic simulation processes� Effective training must strive to promote understanding, positively impact worker attitudes, and improve individual performance� Training must facilitate the transfer of knowledge and skills that relate to real-world activities� Many organizations do not dedicate sufficient time, allocate sufficient resources, or require attendance at training and education sessions�
BOX 2.7 SIGNS OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE
• Increased absenteeism • Poor decisions and ineffectiveness on the job • Poor quantity and/or quality in production • High accident rates • Resentment by coworkers who pick up the slack • Poor morale in the department • Late three times more often than other workers • Uses three times more sick leave than others • Five times more likely to file a workers’ compensation claim • Involved in accidents four times more often than other employees
An around-the-clock operation makes the education and training of shift employees even more challenging� Educate and train shift workers prior to or during their shift but never after the shift� Many organizations do not honestly evaluate training and education effectiveness� They maintain attendance or participation documentation� However, this documentation may not document and validate retention or competency� Some professional educators recommend documenting training and education attendance at the conclusion of the session� Use a short quiz or performance assessment to document learning� Consider the use of employee safety meetings to educate workers about on-and off-the-job safety topics� Publish an education and training policy statement to outline goals and objectives� Use various methods such as posters, flyers, bulletins, newsletters, classroom presentations, on-the-job training sessions, professional seminars, safety education fairs, and computer-assisted training to communicate hazard control and safety topics� Some organizations delegate a number of training responsibilities to the individual departments� Other organizations employ a full-time educational coordinator� Large or specialized departments in some organizations, such as laboratories, conduct most of their own training�
Safety and training personnel must coordinate education and training objectives to ensure they meet organizational needs� Conduct training for employees transferring to new jobs or work areas� Train those returning from an extended period away from the job and those new to the workforce� Schedule training sessions to match the needs of the organization and needs of learners� Always view education and training as organizational functions and never as programs� When implementing an effective hazard control education and training function, consider the following elements: (1) identify needs, (2) develop objectives, (3) determine learning methods, (4) conduct the sessions, (5) evaluate effectiveness, and (6) take steps to improve the process� Training must compliment and supplement other hazard controls and address rules and work practices� Some ways to evaluate training can include the following: (1) student opinions expressed on questionnaires, (2) conducting informal discussions to determine relevance and appropriateness of training, (3) supervisors’ observations of individual performance both before and after the training, and (4) documenting reduced injury or accident rates� Revise the content of the session when an evaluation reveals that those attending did not demonstrate the knowledge or competency expected� Recurring sessions should cover on-the-job training and refresher sessions to ensure employees remain current in worker-related issues, including safety topics� Changes covered might include updated technology procedures, new government regulations, and improved practice standards� Engineering controls remain the preferred way of preventing accidents involving hazards related to unsafe mechanical and physical hazards� However, education and training serves as the most effective tool in preventing accidents by human causes� Through adequate instruction, people can learn to develop safe attitudes and work practices� Design education and training sessions by using clearly stated goals and objectives that reflect the knowledge and skills needs of people�
Healthcare professionals including nurses must learn to understand the communicative process and demonstrate their ability to speak and write effectively� Communication consists of the sender, the message, and the audience� For successful communication, the audience must not only get the message, but must interpret the message in the sender’s intended way� Communication refers to the purposeful act or instance of transmitting information using verbal expressions or written messages� To function effectively, all leaders and managers need to know how to effectively communicate with all organizational members� Managers and leaders must understand the different communication channels available� Downward communication involves more than passing information to subordinates� It can involve managing the tone of the message and effectively demonstrating skill in delegation�
When communicating upward, tone becomes more crucial along with timing, strategy, and audience adaptation� A sender wants to transmit an idea to a receiver through using signs capable of perception by another person�
Communication refers to the sharing or exchanging of thought by oral, written, or nonverbal means� Communication signs can include the printed or spoken word, a gesture, a handshake, or a facial expression� The receiver takes those signs, interprets them, and then reacts with feedback or simply ignores the message� When communicating, a sender encodes a message using some tangible sign� A sign may consist of anything seen, heard, felt, tasted, or smelled� The receiver decodes the message to comprehend its meaning� The meaning of the message can differ since both the senders and receivers can assign their own meanings� Each individual’s unique set of experiences can function as a perceptual filter� The filter blends the education, upbringing, and life experiences of the perceiver� Leaders must learn to use effective communication to provide vision and direction to others� Motivating, inspiring, and persuading others to work together requires effective communication skills� Miscommunication can result in expensive mistakes, organizational embarrassment, and in some cases accidents or even death� Today, communication effectiveness can suffer from too much information� Around-the-clock media coverage, e-mails, and web-based information sources make it difficult to filter the valuable information needed to accomplish our goals and objectives� We must learn to communicate with clarity and focus� Failure to communicate relates to answering the wrong question, answering only part of the question, and adding irrelevant information� Many communicators answer the question but provide unnecessary feedback information�
Communication barriers, often also called noise or static, can complicate the communication process� While unavoidable, both the sender and receiver must work to minimize them� Interpersonal communication barriers can arise within the realm of either the sender or receiver� If an individual holds a bias against the topic under discussion, anything said in the conversation can affect perception� Organizational barriers can occur because of interactions taking place within another larger work unit� The serial transmission effect takes place when a message travels along the chain of command path� As it moves from one level to the next, it changes to reflect the person who passed it on� By the time a message travels from the bottom to the top of the chain, it changes and is not likely recognized by the person who initiated it� Nonverbal communication occurs when information exchanges through nonlinguistic signs� Many consider body language synonymous with nonverbal communication� Body language provides a rich source of information during interpersonal communication� The gestures that people make during an interview can emphasize or contradict what he or she says� Posture and eye contact can indicate respect and careful attention�
When preparing to communicate using written correspondence, organize information using a logical and systematic process� This helps the recipients to understand the message without reading it over and over� When communicating in a clear manner, place emphasis on the rules of language, including proper spelling and correctly pronouncing words� Good communicators also learn how to assemble and punctuate sentences� Effective communicators never hide their ideas or information in a jungle of unnecessary verbiage� Use of incorrect language can cripple credibility and limit acceptance of ideas� Developing strong language skills requires commitment� Many writers and speakers cripple their attempt at communication by using bureaucratic jargon, big words, and too much passive voice� Good writers and speakers want to inform or persuade their audience� Building
credibility with the targeted audience requires the use of support and logic� Nothing can cripple a clearly written and correctly punctuated correspondence quicker than a fractured fact or a distorted argument� However, properly using logic remains a challenge for many individuals to master since it challenges the mind’s ability to think in the abstract� Never attempt to hide intellectual shortcomings with verbal overdose� Communicators need to consider a seven-step approach that will support communication success� Good communication requires preparation, and the first four steps lay the groundwork for the drafting process�
1� What are at least five concepts that all leaders must learn? 2� In your own words, define the concept of effectiveness� 3� How does ethical conduct impact leadership? 4� Explain the primary difference between leadership and management� 5� Why would knowledge management be a vital part of effective safety efforts? 6� What three elements are common to most definitions of a crisis? 7� What would be the foundational element of organizational culture? 8� List the four key factors that influence workers’ compensation rates� 9� List seven signs of substance abuse by an employee� 10� Define the following terms: a� Orientation b� Education c� Training
BOX 2.8 SEVEN STEPS FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
1� Analyze Purpose and Audience 2� Research Your Topic 3� Support Your Ideas 4� Organize and Outline 5� Draft 6� Edit 7� Get Feedback and Approval
