ABSTRACT
The LCA can be used in process analysis, materials selection, product evaluation, product comparison, and even in policy-making. LCA can be used by acquisitions staff, new product design staff, and staff involved in investment evaluations. What makes this type of assessment unique is its focus on the entire "life cycle," I rather than a single manufacturing step or environmental emission. The theory behind this approach is that operations occurring within a facility can also cause impacts outside the facility's gates that need to be considered when evaluating project alternatives. Examining these "upstream and downstream" impacts can identify benefits or drawbacks to a particular opportunity that otherwise may have been overlooked. For example, examining whether to invest in plastic bottle cartons for the beverage bottling facility described earlier, or to use wooden crates for staging and storing incoming bottles should include a comparison of all major impacts, both inside the facility (e.g., disposing of the wooden crates) and "outside the gate" (e.g., additional wastewater discharges from the off-site washing of the reusable plastic cartons). To gain complete understanding of a proposed project's environmental effects requires identifying and analyzing inputs and releases from every life cycle stage. However, securing and analyzing this data can be frustrating, and perhaps an endless task. Oftentimes process engineers in plants are faced with immediate priorities and may not have the time or resources to examine each life cycle stage or to collect all pertinent data. Despite this shortcoming, it is worthwhile to discuss
the steps required to begin applying LCA concepts and principles to project analysis. Examples will demonstrate steps within selected life cycle stages. Before beginning to apply LCA concepts to projects under review, it is important to first determine the purpose and the scope of the study. In determining the purpose, facility managers should consider the type of information needed from the environmental review (e.g., Does the study require quantitative data or will qualitative information satisfy the requirements?). Once the purpose has been defined, the boundaries or the scope of the study should then be determined. What stages of the life cycle are to be examined? Are data available to study the inputs and outputs for each stage of the life cycle to be reviewed? Are the available data of an acceptable type and quality to meet the objectives of the study? Are adequate staff and resources available to conduct a detailed study? The definition and scoping activity links the purpose and scope of the assessment with available resources and time and allows reviewers to outline what will and will not be included in the study. In some cases, the assessment may be conducted for all stages of the life cycle (Le., raw materials acquisition, manufacturing, use/reuse/maintenance, and recycling/waste management). In many cases, the analysis may begin at the point where equipment and/or materials enter the facility. In other cases, primary emphasis may be placed on a single life cycle stage, such as identifying and quantifying waste and emissions data. In all cases, managers should ensure that the boundaries of the LCA address the purpose for which the assessment is conducted and the realities of resource constraints. Whenever possible, include in the analysis all life-cycle stages in which significant environmental impacts are likely to occur. Conducting a LCA that includes all life-cycle stages will provide decision makers with the most complete understanding of environmental consequences. However, if resources are limited and an in-depth, quantitative analysis is not practical, a simplified approach may be taken. This alternative approach makes use of a simple checklist to identify and highlight certain environmental implication's associated with competing projects. A checklist using qualitative data instead of quantitative inputs can be very useful when available information is limited or as a first step in conducting a more thorough LCA. In addition, a Life Cycle Checklist (LCC) should include questions regarding the environmental effects of current operations and/or potential projects in terms of materials and resources consumed and wastes/emissions generated. Table 8 provides a sample checklist. Of course this example is very general, but the reader can expand upon it, making it specific to the facility and nature of the operations under evaluation.
