Introduction

This section examines the importance of urban ecosystems for human society. Beginning with an overview of the many ways in which nature in the built environment contributes to a good urban life and a consideration of the different ways various groups of people may view nature and natural areas, the section then examines specific benefits in terms of implications for health and well-being. It then looks at the many contributions vegetation offers, from the benefits of street trees to gardens and biodiversity. The human need for nature shows itself as an urge for contact with other forms of life besides our own. Yet for most people such contact has to take place on our own terms, as part of the ordered, regulated conditions of our daily lives. Urban nature cannot be permitted to overwhelm our lives or the artefacts that are so important to them. Thus we both fight pests in our houses and gardens, but at the same time care for domestic animals and nurture flowers and shrubs, both indoors and outdoors. Yet many people find wandering in relatively natural woodland and along river banks stimulating and relaxing. Some enjoy the space for jogging or walking the dog; others exploit it for fishing or water sports. Most outdoor activities in urban greenspaces involve physical exercise that is beneficial for our physical and mental health. Yet those greenspaces can be key elements in urban environmental management and in helping cities adapt to climate change. A 10 per cent increase in the amount of greenspace in built-up centres would reduce urban surface temperatures by as much as 4°C in north-west Europe. Floodplain parks, sports grounds and golf courses can all be part of floodbasins that can temporarily store extreme flood flows that would otherwise overtop banks and inundate built-up areas. Tree planting, especially along roads and highways can not only absorb CO2 but can also filter out part of the airborne pollutant load and also attenuate traffic noises and other sounds. Urban nature can stimulate children, encourage community togetherness and provide relaxation for elderly citizens. In separate chapters David Nicholson-Lord and Rachel Kaplan take independent views of how people value nature in cities and their reactions to it. By the mid-nineteenth century, the simple benefits of the countryside had become popularly associated with nature itself. These associations inherited from European romanticism spread in North America through thinking about how nature, through attunement with, contemplation of it, and immersion in it, uplifted the spirit. This strongly influenced the design of public greenspaces and parks. Yet uncultivated naturalness was undesirable. People expected parks to cater for a whole variety of interests, from

being pleasure grounds full of alternative recreational opportunities, from bandstands to rowing boats on a lake. For them nature was simply a backdrop or frame within which other activities took place. After 1900 parks began to be organized to provide regulated recreation under park leaders, play directors and efficiency minded experts. To a certain extent they saw parks as a mechanism of social control: a moral defence against the abundance of chaos perceived to stem from the greater free time brought about by shorter working hours. People’s attitudes to nature changed until the spirit of the right to roam outside the cities across open countryside stimulated a wider demand for national parks and access to mountains and moorlands, rivers and waterfalls. Gradually such accessibility and the idea of accessible urban nature took hold. Places to watch birds, see wildlife, and escape from urban stress and noise became valued. Even so, this was not for everyone. Many people were always concerned about unruly behaviour and vandalism in natural areas and nature reserves in and around cities. Many would not venture into shady wooded areas, were put off by signs of broken fences, damaged plants and carelessly dumped rubbish. In the worst cases, paths along well vegetated urban stream valleys became seen as locations where drug dealing and other unpleasant activities took place. The intrinsic and aesthetic values of urban nature are complex. Many people still like to have that element of control and safety. High quality green spaces go a long way to encouraging people to pursue healthier lifestyles through exercise such as walking, cycling and active children’s play. Urban green space encourages physical activity across a broader range of the community than those likely to use other avenues for physical activity such as gyms. In particular, access to green spaces tends to be free in contrast to other centres for leisure activity. A diversity of jogging routes, nature trails, cycle paths and bridleways in urban greenspaces, such as river valley areas, encourages a variety of forms of physical activity. It is also important to identify the beneficial elements in aiding recovery from specific conditions. Jenna Tilt finds that though there is strong evidence that vegetation, particularly high levels of vegetation and mature trees, contribute to one’s physical activity and/or health, the pattern and maintenance of this high level of vegetation is also extremely important. Perceptions and fears about safety and a general dislike for poorly maintained urban nature spaces might limit the positive effects of the nearby natural space on physical activity and health considerably. Looking at green space for quite short time periods has an impact on the nervous system – lowering blood pressure and reducing stress. Regular access to restorative, natural environments can halt or slow processes that negatively affect mental and physical health. Walking in natural areas provides opportunities for social interaction that are particularly beneficial for the elderly. Exposure to natural scenes reduces stress. Trees play an important social role in easing tensions and improving psychological health. People feel better living around trees. Houses surrounded by nature help to raise children’s attention capabilities. Thus living in areas with trees helps to reduce anger and violence and improve the ability to concentrate and work effectively. Landscapes can be used in this way to help develop programmes designed to help recovery from specific conditions. Rod Matsuoka and William Sullivan review the mounting evidence regarding the profound and systemic benefits that contact with nature provides urban dwellers. Taken together, the studies reveal that in a wide variety of settings – parks, work, home, school, and hospitals – the benefits of being exposed to nature are available to urban residents. Both passive engagement with nature (e.g. viewing nature through a building window) and more direct interactions with nature (e.g. climbing a tree, planting a vegetable garden) produce an array of benefits. The benefits are far from trivial. For individuals, they include an enhanced capacity to concentrate and pay attention, greater ability to cope with life’s stressors, higher levels of life satisfaction, and increased levels of psychological well-being. For neighbours and communities, they include stronger ties among neighbours, lower levels of incivilities, fewer instances of aggressive behaviour, reduced levels of violence, and fewer reported crimes.