ABSTRACT
This chapter shows that government learning, as suggested by policy toward the Arab-Israeli dispute, is rare and occurs primarily via personnel shifts. It focuses on learning by individuals and the examples of learning are rare, with the exception of occasional adjustments in tactics and priorities. The appointment of officials within a term reflects the learning of the presidential entourage who are seeking to change policies by changing personnel, but this is rare. Policy makers are usually selected, especially during a presidential term, because they are seen as providing continuity with the overall global philosophy of the administration and/or because they appear to exhibit particular required talents. The chapter argues that learning primarily occurs by "outs" who bring a set of assumptions to power, which they apply as events unfold. The Ronald Reagan administration paradoxically exhibited the greatest amount of learning.
