ABSTRACT
In the EU Member States, the term domestic violence is used variously, either to refer exclusively to intimate partner violence or also encompassing intergenerational violence such as violence against children as well as children’s violence against their parents. The Istanbul Convention (Council of Europe, 2014b) specifies that, in the context of the Convention, domestic violence shall mean all acts of physical, sexual, psychological or economic violence that occur within the family or domestic unit, or between former or current spouses or partners, whether or not the perpetrator shares or has shared the same residence with the victim. Therefore, the definition in the Convention includes both intimate partner violence and intergenerational violence. But, the term domestic violence used in this chapter refers exclusively to intimate partner violence and excludes intergenerational violence (European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2014). Domestic violence is the most common form of violence against women. It affects women across the life span from sex-selective abortion of female fetuses to forced suicide and abuse, and is evident, to some degree, in every society in the world (Kaur & Garg, 2008). As previously seen, there lacks a generally accepted and clear definition of domestic violence, but its definition varies depending on the context in which the term is used. From a clinical or behavioral viewpoint domestic violence can be defined as “a pattern of assaultive and/ or coercive behaviors, including physical, sexual, and psychological attacks, as well as economic coercion, that adults or adolescents use against their intimate partners” (Schechter & Edelson, 1999, pp. 122-123). Legal definitions across the nations generally describe specific conducts or acts which are subject to civil and criminal actions, and the specific language used may vary depending on whether the definition is found in the civil or criminal codes (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2013). Violence in intimate relationships is often cyclical. The domestic violence cycle can be described as a three-stage process articulated in distinct phases. The first is tension-building, where unresolved conflict and unexpressed anger collect. The victim at this time minimizes the tension. Explosion, the second phase, is when the abuser reacts to a sense of losing control by increasing the intensity of threats to the victim. The victim does not know how to reduce the tension or leave the environment. At this point the emotional, verbal, and/or
physical abuse incident occurs. Last is the honeymoon period. Here the abuser seeks forgiveness in a contrite manner and promises never to let the abuse occur again. The victim is confused as she was just hurt yet she sees before her the potential of what the person could be if they did not display the controlling/ violent side of their actions. Obviously, the cycle begins again as tension rebuilds (Reiter, 2015, p. 118). The combination of individual, relational, community and societal factors contribute to the risk of becoming a domestic violence victim or perpetrator (Sampson, 2006). Understanding these multilevel factors can help identify various opportunities for prevention. In general, literature around the prevention of domestic violence is centered on two main factors: risk and protective factors. Risk factors are primarily associated with detecting early warning factors that may contribute to domestic violence. On the other hand, protective factors aim to prevent domestic violence by focusing on interpersonal and quality of life domains by facilitating the learning of healthy relationship skills, personal development and respect (Wells, Abboud & Claussen, 2012). Risk factors can be identified as mental disorders (Humphreys & Thiara, 2003; Hegarty, 2011; Trevillion, Oram, Feder & Howard, 2012), partner’s use of substances, especially heavy alcohol consumption (Sabia, 2004; Gebara et al., 2015), low socioeconomic status (Chatha, Ahmed & Sheikh, 2014), young age (McCue, 2008, pp. 50-51), male dominance in the family, traditional gender norms (Pulerwitz et al., 2015), and social norms supportive of violence (World Health Organization, 2009), etc. Several studies have shown that women who were more highly educated (secondary schooling or higher) were 20-55 percent less likely to be victims of intimate partner violence compared to less-educated women. Likewise, men who were more highly educated were approximately 40 percent less likely to perpetrate intimate partner violence compared to less-educated men. Other factors that may decrease or protect against risk include: having benefited from healthy parenting as a child, having own supportive family, being part of an extended family and belonging to an association (World Health Organization & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 2010, p. 31). Domestic violence is a critical public health problem with serious implications for the physical and psychological status of women across all societies and classes in the world (Alhabib, Nur & Jones, 2009). This specific form of violence may lead to physical impairments, ranging from cuts and bruises to permanent disability and death, and is also often associated with specific mental and behavioral health problems such as depression and anxiety, phobias, panic disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, suicidal behavior, self-harm, eating, and sleep disorders (Campbell, Laughon & Woods, 2006). In addition, women who are abused suffer an increased risk of unwanted pregnancy and induced abortion (Kaye, Mirembe, Bantebya, Johansson & Ekstrom, 2006) and sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV (MacQuarrie, Winter & Kishor, 2013). As trauma victims, they are also at an increased risk of misuse of psychoactive substances (Willson et al., 2000). A World Health Organization, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine and South African Medical
Research Council multi-country study reported that the global prevalence of physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence among all ever-partnered women was estimated at 30 percent. The prevalence was highest in the African, Eastern Mediterranean and South-East Asian regions, where approximately 37 percent of ever-partnered women reported having experienced physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence at some point in their lives. Prevalence was lower in the high-income countries (23 percent) and in the European and the Western Pacific regions, where 25 percent of ever-partnered women reported lifetime intimate partner violence experience. The prevalence is already high among young women aged 15-19 years and rises to reach its peak in the age group of 40-44 years. The reported prevalence among women aged 50 years and older is lower but this estimate is rather approximate because it is based on data which come primarily from high-income countries. In addition, since most of the surveys are carried out by women aged 15 or 18 to 49 years, fewer data are available for the over-49 age group (World Health Organization, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine and South African Medical Research Council, 2013).
