ABSTRACT
The nature of English warfare from 1511 to 1642 was dictated by the predicament of the island kingdoms strategic position. English warfare drew upon several European arts of war and made their own unique contributions to military science. The fiscal, organisational, and technological innovations that would make up the English art of war during the military revolution were deeply rooted in medieval practices. Supporting Dutch independence had aided English security but brought confrontation with Spain, which in turn prompted Spanish succour for a Roman Catholic and independent Ireland. Therefore, the Elizabethan Irish wars constituted a sub-theatre of the Low Countries wars and the Thirty Years War acted out in Ireland, reaching their climax between 1641 and 1649. Sir Jacob Astley and the Earl of Essex, veterans of continental wars who had collaborated so decisively in securing Berwick in the First Bishops War, now commanded opposing armies, and did so spectacularly.
