ABSTRACT
The social structure of society to a large extent determines patterns of political participation. Inequalities based on class position, education level, income, age or gender are usually shown to have a strong impact on participation levels. Not just the level of participation, however, is being influenced by social stratification patterns, but also the kind of actions citizens prefer and the effectiveness of these participation repertoires. This relation between social structure and political participation can also have strong democratic consequences, as it implies that some groups within societies will be more successful in getting their voice heard in the political decision-making process than other groups. Political participation can be considered as an important hallmark of a well-functioning democratic political system. A general expectation within the literature is that citizens should have the opportunity to communicate their preferences to political decision-makers, while they should also have sufficient means at their disposal to exercise pressure on those decision-makers to pay attention to their needs and preferences (Verba/Nie 1972). Within this perspective, low levels of political participation are inevitably seen as problematic. A lack of political participation could signal a lack of openness on behalf of the political system, as system characteristics apparently discourage citizens from expressing their opinions in a free manner. It could also signal a lack of involvement on behalf of the citizenry, as low levels of political participation might indicate that they are not interested in expressing their views on the way society should be run, most likely as a result of a lack of political interest or political efficacy (Karp/Banducci 2008). Inequalities with regard to level of participation also mean that not all citizens enjoy an equal opportunity to express their preferences and demands.
