ABSTRACT
This essay seeks to explain the incidence of revolution in nineteenth-century Europe. The necessary reference point has to be the French Revolution of 1789 and the assault upon monarchy, the nobility and the church, and the long wars between 1792 and 1815. This experience promoted a polarization of opinion between conservative social and political élites and those groups, largely excluded from power, wanting political liberalism and social reform. Conservative fears and repression would greatly aggravate the hostility between these. Repression alone could never be totally effective, given the inherent weakness of the bureaucratic machines (particularly in comparison with twentieth-century models). Moreover, in addition to fear, it frequently inspired contempt and so served to stimulate opposition. Thus the conservative and governmental determination to crush liberal, democratic and national aspirations maintained a high degree of political and social tension. The situation was greatly exacerbated by a complex of factors including a continued suspicion of France. This reflected doubts about the stability of its internal political system and the sincerity of the French commitment to the 1815 territorial settlement. There was also a growing awareness of the unrest caused by population growth, which in many areas threatened to outstrip resources, and by the disruptive effects of industrial development, urbanization and the commercialization of agriculture.
