ABSTRACT

Gruber (1986) conducted a meta analysis of studies with children and in 1994, Calfas and Taylor reviewed the impact of physical activity on the psychological well-being of adolescents, and included a section on selfconcept. Gruber concluded that the effect of activity programmes was positive, particularly for those already low in self-esteem. Physical fitness and aerobics programmes produced superior results to motor skill and sport programmes. There is also some evidence (Marsh & Peart, 1988; Schempp, Cheffers, & Zaichowsky, 1983) that cooperative and more democratic exercise settings produce stronger effects and this is supported by recent literature on motivational climate in sport, exercise and physical education. Calfas and Taylor (1994) when comparing the effects on the range of mental benefits found that the strongest changes were for selfesteem, self-concept or self-efficacy with nine out of ten studies revealing positive results. Of the eight RCSs conducted with children in Table 5.1 (which include two reported by Calfas & Taylor) five report self-concept or self-esteem changes and a sixth found changes in physical self-concept accompanying exercise. One trial (Hilyer et al., 1982) reported self-esteem improvements with youth offenders when exercise was combined with counsellor support. Although exercise/self-esteem studies have been conducted with obese children, it is not possible to single out the effects of exercise from weight loss (French, Story, & Perry, 1995)

The evidence is sufficient to conclude that exercise is an effective medium for developing a positive self in children, is particularly effective for those with low self-esteem, and has greatest potential when presented in a style that will encourage mastery and self-development. It must also be kept in mind that school-based programmes have potential to lower self-esteem, as youngsters are not in the same position as adults to drop out if experiences are negative.