ABSTRACT

Recognizing these limits, recent research focuses on the interactions among private and public rules to understand how they shape processes of governance, and what these interactions then mean for effectiveness. For each process, effects may be positive, neutral, or negative, and can change over time. Beyond bilateral interactions, certification is increasingly examined within larger complexes of institutions where the institutional interactions of public and private rules may require orchestration for global governance to operate more effectively (Abbott and Snidal 2009).