ABSTRACT
This chapter focuses on the performance of political parties in processes of direct democracy and examines the different forms of party competition in referendum politics. It looks at the interdependence between parties and existing or emerging cleavages in society, details the extent to which political parties "control" referendum outcomes, and determines how their position in the political system is affected by referendums. Parties use referendums and initiatives to push for policy and force decisions they are not able to obtain in the representative arena. Such referendums "may help parties stay united in the long term. An empirical study of all 217 referendums held in 21 current European Union member states between 1990 and 20161 confirms Hornig's findings. Also the empirical study of 21 European states carried out for this contribution shows that party recommendations are significantly more closely followed in referendums on economic or social issues.
