Rhine

The river Rhine is situated in the temperate climatic region of central Europe. It originates in the Alps of Switzerland and Italy, being adjoined by Liechtenstein and Austria on its way towards Germany, where it constitutes first the GermanSwiss and later the Franco-German border. The other lower Rhine riparians are Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands. Altogether, the catchment covers 198,735 sq km. The Rhine Falls near Schaffhausen and Lake Constance mark a border between upstream and downstream navigational transport uses. The Rhine constitutes a water-lifeline for all riparians downstream of the lake, notably for transport purposes, freshwater supply for drinking water companies as well as the industries situated on the shores of the river. This role evolved over millennia during which the river always had a strategic significance, being a major pathway for ships southbound and marking the border as well as the formerly disputed territories between France and Germany (thus even playing a role in the advent of World Wars I and II). Under the temperate climatic conditions of central Europe, water concerns are centred on quality issues and rarely on quantity for irrigation purposes; however, for the Netherlands and the German state of Nordrhine-Westphalia, flood threats after strong precipitation events are a serious issue concerning water quantity. The first attempts at international co-operation were made as far back as

the 19th century, when upstream states urged the Netherlands to adjust the already widely mechanized salmon fishing practices threatening the stocks in the whole basin. Despite the successful co-operation founded on an agreement dating back to 1869, by 1940, salmon had almost completely disappeared from the Rhine and Moselle (a branch on the left-hand side of the river, springing in France). This was caused by the increased focus of Rhine riparian states on the development of navigation, flow regulation and hydropower generation; as a result of the infrastructural interventions, the migration of salmon to their spawning grounds was seriously impeded. A new era of basin-wide co-operation began in 1950. In the post-war

ambience of economic growth, the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine against Pollution (ICPR)—founded by all riparians with the exception of Italy, Austria, Liechtenstein and Belgium-came into being, constituting the first institutionalized transboundary watercourse co-operation platform in Europe. The driving force behind the foundation of the ICPRwas serious quality concerns: during the low-flow situations in the summer months, downstream Dutch farmers, drinking water suppliers, cities and ports

suffered from severe pollution from chlorine, heavy metals and only partly treated wastewater discharged into the river in the densely populated and highly industrialized (chemical, mining, brewing) upper catchment. Although in the initial stages of co-operation the ICPR’s mandate was vague concerning responsibilities, dispute settlement or quality standards (largely set by the Dutch who where the most affected), the legal foundation of the ICPR was improved in 1963. The co-basin states, by signing the Convention of Berne, agreed on the establishment of basin-wide quality standards and the establishment of organizational co-operation. However, the agreement formulated only general quality guidelines without specifically mentioning concrete threshold values for certain periods and/or locations. In 1971, the Rhine water quality was at an all-time low. It was at this point that, in addition to the already involved upstream actors-the Dutch, major dischargers of the French and German chemical industries, and water utilities-the Rhine basin scene was joined by environmentalist movements, voicing a general public concern about pollution and the management of natural resources. The increased interest on the part of the public and the emblematic, shocking events (dead fish floating in the river and reports about the hazardous character of the water for human consumption) triggered political impetus, resulting in the 1976 convention on the reduction of Rhine pollution. ICPR members, represented by their respective responsible ministers, decided specifically to blacklist substances and to agree upon detailed actions to reduce pollution and eliminate threats to water quality. The increased attention reshaped the ICPR’s role and responsibilities from amutual information-gathering and exchange platform to a body formulating concrete, agreed-upon measures for all states. Another major event was a chemical spill at a Sandoz-site near Basel, Switzerland. The discharge of large quantities of chemicals after a fire at the production site caused the biological collapse of the river downstream, and drinking water supply was endangered. Today, the Rhine basin states can celebrate transboundary co-operation

efforts as a success, proven by ecological improvements like the reintroduction of salmon and related investments in water treatment plants. The ICPR has a co-operating body dealing with the hydrologic aspects of the basin and generating data for planning and decision-making. In 1999, a treaty between the five major riparians Germany, France, Switzerland, Luxembourg and the Netherlands replaced the 1963 Berne Convention and the 1976 Convention concerning chemical pollution. This convention is synchronized with the Water Framework Directive issued by the European Commission, obliging all EU member states to establish river basin authorities, provide detailed inventories of basin characteristics and ‘democratize’ water management. During the formulation of the EU Water Framework Directive, the Rhine constituted a model basin, providing long-term experience about transnational co-operation in water management and the administrative conditions that evolved over decades in the Rhine basin and today constitute a role model for other national and transboundary basins of the EU.